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The individual decides to reward them Spontaneous act of kindness In another circumstance the person is the individual who is supposed to get rewarded and instead they get punished A cheater in that case And amid these convoluted stories people are much better 75 to 25 are much better at detecting when cheating has gone on in the story than when a banksys DJ Funny Monkey For Men Women Shirt random act of kindness has gone on We are more attuned to picking up cheating And remarkably some very subtle studies have been done with chimps showing that chimps have the same bias They are much better at picking up social interactions involving cheating than ones that involve spontaneous altruism So you see here this balance between cooperation reciprocal even among non relatives And that’s great but you should cheat when you can get away with it But you should be vigilant against cheaters And what of course it comes down to then is tic tac toe and giraffe hearts and all of that What is the optimal strategy in a particular social species for a particular individual What is the optimal strategy When do you cooperate and when do you cheat When do you defect on the cooperative relationship you’ve had And this introduces us to a whole world of mathematics built around what is called game theory The notion that there are games formal games that have mathematically optimal strategies or multiple strategies multi equilibrium And a whole world of research has been built around them in terms of when to cooperate and when to defect So game theory stuff This was starting off in a world of people studying economics and negotiation and diplomacy and all of that And that was a whole world built around this logic of when do you cooperate when do you cheat And what came out of there were all sorts of models of how to optimize behavior in terms of that And the building block sort of the fruit fly of game theory is a game called the prisoner’s dilemma Prisoner’s dilemma sort of cutting to sort of getting rid of the details Two. Just scratching the surface liz trust the new foreign secretary has big questions over how to define this idea of global britain the kind of post brexit um place in the world for for the uk so you know you’ll see a lot of smiling faces this morning in downing street as these ministers turn up for for their first cabinet meeting but I suspect there’s a bit apprehension behind those smells about how exactly they’re going to deliver and what is a pretty tight time scale well we’ll be keeping a close eye on it nick thanks so much nick headlee there time now is eight minutes past six surprise sinclair the british inventor who created one of the first pocket calculators brought affordable home computers to the masses has died at the age of 81 largely self taught he began inventing gadgets while he was still at school still widely known for his creation of the rather ill fated sinclair c5 electric tricycle our technology correspondent rory kathleen jones has more his drive and enthusiasm made him one of britain’s best known inventors the whole business of invention is a non material thing it’s very hard to know why it gives such pleasure clive sinclair’s fascination with gadgets started at school and by his late teens he was selling his own electronic kits by mail order and writing technical manuals he then put a magnifying bubble over each digit to make it visible an obsession with miniaturization saw him launch the world’s first slimline pocket calculator in 1972 soon though competition from cheaper japanese versions forced sinclair to slash his prices then the failure of his next innovation at digital watch brought his company to its knees undaunted he set up sinclair research and in 1980 launched a groundbreaking personal computer the zx80 it sold for under 100 pounds it was the zx spectrum with its color display which was his biggest success credited by some with launching the uk’s computer and video games industries more money had been poured into his obsession with a new form of urban transport the sinclair c5. And serial murderers and Nobel Peace Prize winners and in each case explained what was up and saying what strategy would you use in a prisoner’s dilemma game And he gets them all back and he programs all these different versions And he runs a round robin tournament Every strategy is paired against every other strategy at one point or other And you look at what the payoff is You ask which is the most optimal strategy And out of it shockingly to everyone because this was a computer teaching us optimizing human behavior out of it came one simple strategy that always out competed the others This is people sitting there probabilistic ones as to when to cooperate and lunar cycles as to what to do The one that always won is now called tit for tat You start off cooperating in the very first round with the individual You cooperate If the individual has cooperated with you in that round you cooperate in the next round And you cooperate cooperate as long as the other individual cooperates But as soon as there is a round where the individual cheats against you you cheat against them the next time If they cheated at you that time also you cheat against them the next time If they go back to cooperating you go back to cooperating the next time You have this tit for tat strategy In the absence of somebody stabbing you in the back you will always cooperate And what they found was run these hundreds of thousands of versions of these round robin tournaments and tit for tat was the one that was most optimal to begin to use a word that is not just going to be a metaphor Tit for tat always drove the other strategies into extinction And what you wound up seeing is this optimized strategy And it was very clear why tit for tat worked so well Number one it was nice You start off cooperating Number two it retaliates if you do something crummy to it Number three it is forgiving If you go back to cooperating Number four it’s clear cut in its play It’s not some probabilistic thing What

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You begin to see how the real world is more complicated Multiple roles naked mole rats stuck in plumbing things of that sort These are the principles And what people of this school of evolutionary thought would say armed with these sorts of principles you could now look at all sorts of interesting domains of animal behavior and understand what the behavior is going to be like by using these OK we start with the first example Here we return to these guys And we have one species here and knowing this guy had a banksys DJ Funny Monkey For Men Women Shirt penis and this one nursed we’ve got an adult male and an adult female What is it that you can conclude In this species males are a lot bigger than females Let’s state it here as there’s a big ratio of males to females Meanwhile in the next county you’ve discovered another species where somebody’s got a penis and somebody else is nursing And their skulls are the exact same size Oh here’s a species where there’s no difference in body size between males and females Let’s begin to see just using the principles we’ve got in hand already what sort of stuff we can predict Starting which of those species in one case you have males being a lot bigger than females In one case you’ve got males being the same size as females In which of those species the first one like this or the same size ones which ones would you expect to see more male aggression First one First one OK how come Their bodies are built for it Their bodies are built for it Which begins to tell you something their bodies are built for it maybe because females have been selecting for that You will see higher levels of aggression in species like this where there’s a big body size difference and much less of it in these guys Next you now ask how much variability is there in male reproductive success In one of these species all the males have one or two kids over their lifetime In another species 95 of the reproducing is carried out by 5 of the males A huge variability skew in male reproductive success. With slide rules and out they come out with this prediction as to how big the giraffe heart should be and how thick the walls And you go and you measure a giraffe heart and it’s exactly what the equations predicted And you say isn’t nature amazing Or you read about some desert rodents that drink once every three months and another bunch of folks have done math and figured out how many miles long the renal tubules have to be And somebody goes and studies it and it’s exactly as you expect it Isn’t nature wonderful No nature isn’t wonderful You couldn’t have giraffes unless they had hearts that were that big You couldn’t have rodents living in the desert unless they had kidneys that worked in a certain way There is an inevitable logic about how organisms function how organisms are built how organisms have evolved solving this problem of optimizing the solution And what the next two lectures are about is you can take the same exact principles and apply them to thinking about the evolution of behavior The same sort of logic where just as you could sit there and with logical principles come to the point of saying a giraffe’s heart is going to be this big You can go through a different realm of logic built around evolutionary principles and figure out all sorts of aspects of social behavior And we already know what’s involved in say optimizing What’s the optimal number of whatevers in your kidney What’s the optimal behavior strategy or something All of us as soon as we got some kid sibling learned how to do the optimal strategy in tic tac toe So that you could never lose and it’s totally boring But that’s a case of figuring out the optimal solution to behavior reaching what is called the Nash equilibrium And actually I have no idea what I just said But I like making reference to Nash because it makes me feel quantitative or something So that is called the Nash equilibrium The Nash equilibrium and what the entire point here is the same sort of process of figuring out what. Amazon will the influence of tech giants continue to grow what can be done to rein in their monopolies one thing is clear artificial intelligence is consolidating their grip on power there’s an urgent need to rethink anti trust policy Music mobility is another area in which ai is powering the march of innovation in the near future it could put self driving cars on city roads but how realistic is this vision we’ve come to boston to the prestigious massachusetts institute of technology certus caraman is a leading expert in the field of self driving cars he and his team are working on prototype autonomous vehicles I think that we’ve nailed a couple items with computers and machines one is all of this mapping and localization all that technology works super well computers can know where they are within centimeter maybe sometimes with a millimeter precision way more than what is required to drive computers are not able to look around and understand where everybody else’s but that’s not that’s not what’s required for driving what’s really required is to understand what’s going to happen next in the next three seconds five seconds next minutes maybe even sometimes next hour and so that’s the key missing piece and I think the problem there is that right now it’s very hard for you to describe to me how you understand whether or not a person is going to use the sidewalk or is going to use the crosswalk and cross the street sometimes you look at the face of a person and that facial impression gives them away and you will slow down sometimes not they may be looking at the same direction they may be standing in the same location it’s just a little face impression maybe just the way they stand and unfortunately that kind of intuition gut feeling and so on is very hard for us to program into the computers Music it works in a simple lab environment but in real life settings the algorithms are still totally out of their depth not that that bothers advertisers our test drives were nothing but a series of glitches an inexplicable
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